Federal Reserve Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Central bank - Essay Example The Board of Governors is selected by the President who controls the elements of the Federal Reserve System. There are Federal Reserve Banks which works in significant urban communities of US. The significant targets of the Federal Reserve System are focused on the government assistance of the US economy. The Federal Reserve System in US is liable for augmenting the business openings in US, settling the costs in US economy and accomplishing steadiness in long haul loan fees (Wells 58). The money related arrangement is structured by the Federal Reserve System of US. Different elements of the focal financial framework in US incorporate guideline of the financial structure that incorporates the legislature and the private players just as the warning chambers. The national bank additionally offers money related types of assistance to other storehouse offices. The general monetary solidness of the economy of US is the duty of the Federal Reserve System. Before the Federal Reserve System w as set up in 1913, there were around 30000 monetary standards in the economy of US. Numerous business houses and even the street pharmacists could give cash notes for money related exchanges. This made a circumstance of shakiness in the economy of US. ... Aside from this, the different monetary standards in US had various sections and qualities. The nonattendance of a normalized cash made contrast and issues among the merchants. The business, imports and fares all endured because of the nearness of shifting quantities of monetary forms and nonappearances of normalized type of cash in the economy of US. The Federal Reserve System of the US was made to normalize the money of the economy of US and along these lines build up a place of solidness in the economy (Gray 98). The Federal Reserve System gives a focal financial framework to the economy of US where the business and he people could store their cash in the standard money of US dollar. The contributors could likewise pull back their cash from the Federal Reserve System at the period of scarcity. These withdrawals occurred in the equivalent normalized money of US dollars. In this way the Federal Reserve System could drive away the moderate monetary standards and their fluctuating qua lities and built up a normalized type of cash to be trailed by the clients and brokers all together give a sorted out financial framework and adequacy in liquidity. The US economy perpetually needs the Federal Reserve System in the economy without whose capacities there would be sufficient twists in the economy that would hamper the monetary development of US. This could be comprehended from the jobs and obligations of the Federal Reserve System and the suggestion on the US budgetary and monetary framework without its job. The Federal Reserve System assumes the job of adjusting between the brought together job of the administration for the government assistance of the economy and the private interests of the

Latter, not Ladder

Last mentioned, not Ladder Last mentioned, not Ladder Last mentioned, not Ladder By Maeve Maddox Andrew Chatwin inquires: Last mentioned and Ladder, how are they extraordinary? One distinction is that of articulation: last [läÆ'té™r] ladder[läÆ'dé™r] In common discourse, be that as it may, the distinction between the t and d sounds is regularly hard to recognize. Evidently different speakers are astounded by the word last mentioned. Heres an inquiry posed and replied at Yahoo Answers: For what reason do individuals utilize the expression I pick the stepping stool in the wake of looking at two choices or decisions? Also, heres the most intelligent answer as picked by voters: Gracious a great many people who state that are opportunists and they need to get to the top. In the articulation that alludes to settling on a decision between two alternatives, the word is last mentioned, not stepping stool. The primary choice is known as the previous: Father gave us our decision of the blue Mustang or the red Corvette. I picked the previous and Charlie picked the last mentioned. The word last originates from the near type of Old English laet: laetra, and implied more slow. It assumed the importance of second of two during the 1550s. Present day later came, well, later. (It additionally originates from OE laet.) The most regular utilization of last is to allude to the second of two referenced things: He was offered the piece of either Othello or Iago: he picked the last mentioned. Mormons consider their congregation the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints since they consider themselves to be later adherents of Jesus Christ; the previous day holy people were the primary century Christians. The last days is an eschatological expression utilized by some Christian orders to allude to the days going before the second happening to Christ. One can likewise allude to a people last years, i.e., mature age. Here are a few instances of last used to mean the later piece of life: Men living longer however spend last years wiped out Remaining fit as a fiddle in Your Latter Years Stepping stool, as a thing, normally implies a versatile gadget with rungs or steps that empowers one to move up or down. The word stepping stool can likewise allude to a tear or a break in texture that takes after a stepping stool, having straight sides and crosspieces: When the basic bond at the break tip has broken, the pinnacle pressure fixation is moved to the following bond, etc, similar to a stepping stool in a silk loading. Allegorically, stepping stool is utilized to allude to the means of excelling socially or expertly: A consistent ascent up the legitimate stepping stool brought him into the business law field †¦ He sits, despondent and glad, on the stepping stool of social advancement having lost the hang on one sort of life, however neglecting to arrive at the one which he desires. Need to improve your English shortly a day? Get a membership and begin getting our composing tips and activities day by day! Continue learning! Peruse the Misused Words class, check our mainstream posts, or pick a related post below:100 Mostly Small But Expressive InterjectionsUsed To versus Use ToEspecially versus Uncommonly

The Inciting Incident Get Your Story Started the Right Way

The Inciting Incident Get Your Story Started the Right Way The inciting incident has been addressed numerous times in literary blogs and writing advice forumsâ€"to most of us in the field, the concept of the heros journey and the steps along that journey are old, and oft-repeated news. Today, well call into question some of the dubious advice offered regarding the concept of an inciting incident, and Ill put forward my idea of what the myths are regarding this element of your novel, and how you can build a better inciting incident.Not a hookFirst: your inciting incident is not your hook. There are a thousand blogs which group these two together, and that is a disservice to their readers. Though most good narrativesâ€"even slow onesâ€"have a strong hook, the inciting incident is not used to draw your reader into the novel. The inciting incident is the moment when your reader decides not to put down the novel, near the latter stages of your initial plot developments. A primary example of both a powerful hook and a strong inciting incident, can be found in the hobbit. The hook, for The Hobbit, is Tolkiens wonderful description of a hobbit hole:In a hole in the ground there lived a hobbit. Not a nasty, dirty, wet hole, filled with the ends of worms and an oozy smell, nor yet a dry, bare, sandy hole with nothing in it to sit down on or to eat: it was a hobbit-hole, and that means comfort.J. R. R. Tolkiens The HobbitThis is a hook for two reasons. It opens the novel, and it draws the reader in. It causes us to ask questions almost immediatelyâ€"and for these questions, we do not have ready answers. What is a hobbit? Why do they live in holes? Why do they value comfort? These are the things first-time readers of Tolkien might ask themselves. The same can be said of perhaps the most memorable hook of all time: Herman Melvilles Call me Ishmael from Moby Dick. Here we might ask the questions: Who is Ishmael? Is this his proper name, or only the name he goes by? If this is not his real name, then how can I trust that he will be a n honest narrator?Gregory Peck as Captain Ahab in the 1956 film adaptation of Moby DickThese are powerful hooks because they establish some of the fundamental traits of the world, and they make a reader want to turn that first page. For instance, Tolkien establishes that hobbits live tranquil, idyllic lives, comfortable lives. We know this by the end of the very first paragraph of the first page. This establishes the status quo, but it does not incite. It establishes the world wherein the story takes place but does not tell us why the story should happen.Inciting incidents disrupt the normThe inciting incident in The Hobbit is the coming of Gandalf and the thiefs mark which he etches on Bilbos door. This triggers a number of sudden changes in Bilbos life. It introduces him to dwarfs, who immediately disrupt his organized and meticulous home. It pushes him into becoming a recruit on a quest which he had previously known nothing of, and it elevates his statusâ€"he is given the title o f thief. These changes are particular to the story of The Hobbit but their nature is not. No matter the novel, the inciting incident represents the primary action which changes the protagonists life significantly enough that an interesting story can be told.It is hard (perhaps impossible) to think of a story that does not have an inciting incident. Take for instance the elevator pitch for Fight Club: A blue-collar worker becomes disillusioned with capitalist society and starts a pseudo-anarchist community. The inciting incident is when he becomes disillusioned with capitalist society. It would be impossible to tell the story without this elementâ€"the inciting incident is a prerequisite to what comes after. This is why an inciting incident can sometimes be called a turning point. The same is true of every narrative that I can think of: I challenge you to name a narrative without an inciting incident.The incident exists because stories necessitate changeIn response to the above chall enge, we might turn to narratives that begin with much of the story already toldâ€"narratives that plunge their readers head-first into the action, without explaining the particulars of the narrative before-hand. These have become typical in the modern literary landscape, so much so that slower-building narratives like those offered in Annihilation by Jeff VanderMeer have become the exception to the rule.An action-packed opening scene is not necessarily an inciting incidentStill, these action scenes in the opening of novels are not inciting incidents. They plunge us directly into the firefight, but in so doing, they establish this action-packed scene as the norm. Thus, there will exist a pause in the fighting, or an alteration in (or intensifying of) the action of the first scenes, which marks a departure from this norm, and is thus the inciting incident of that novel. By definition, inciting incidents must exist because stories necessitate change, and the inciting incident is whate ver happens in the novel which creates this change. So, why is discussion important, if writing a novel will inevitably result in the presence of an inciting incident?The good, the bad, and the uglyThough no story can function without an inciting incident, all stories benefit from addressing that incident directly and refining it so that the nature of the incident and its effects are clear to the reader. These give the narrative a strong direction. Just because every story has an inciting incident, doesnt mean all inciting incidents are created equal. So, what can we look for in a good inciting incident? I believe there are two major attributes: the relationship between the incident and the reader, and the ability of the incident to carry the plot forward.The incident should be the plots backboneA good inciting incident should fuel your plot. Some incidents provide more oil for the fire than others. For instance, compare the incident of a paper plane being thrown in class versus a f atal car crash. Each could produce a narrative. In a quiet school, either could disrupt the status quo: The first by causing a disturbance to a sedate class, and the second by creating an atmosphere of mourning in the school. Though neither is objectively better than the other (we can tell a good story with both), the fatal car crash is, in most cases, subjectively more impactful.A good inciting incident is one that fuels your plotFor this reason, consideration of your inciting incident can be grouped with consideration of your plot. If we choose a tragic inciting incident, then the resulting narrative will be working against the tone established by that incident. A comedy, for instance, will have an uphill struggle against the inciting incident of a fatal car crash, whereas a horror or tragedy will be complemented by the incident. Of course, this is an oversimplification, and contrast or attention to the incident could paint it in a drastically different light. For instance, the ca r crash could be darkly humorous in a story about a student coming to class as a zombie. In any case, the incident should fuel the plot and give the writer room to tell a story, and it should shift the tone of the story noticeably.The incident should be closely tied to the narrativeFinally, in good literature, all elements of a narrative support the themes of that narrative. If it is at all possible, the same should hold true of an inciting incident. Though you could theoretically use any moment as your inciting incident, there is more power in using thematically linked elements. For instance: If your narrative will address the issue of poverty, then the loss or inheritance of a great deal of money could serve as a strong turning point. By contrast, if you intend your narrative to address the issue of poverty, then a fatal car accident is less likely to accomplish this goal, and will usually not accomplish this goal as authentically. The reverse, of course, might be true of a story where the central theme is coping with personal tragedy, where a fatal car accident might motivate a character towards introspection.Dread it, run from it, it still IncitesThere is perhaps some form of experimental fiction wherein an inciting incident is not of primary importance in a narrativeâ€"where it is obscured, or possibly even where it is absent. Still, for most fictional narratives the inciting incident is worth time and attention to detail. It is inevitableâ€"your narrative must contain some form of conflict, and the inciting incident provides this conflict by disrupting the status quo. Embrace the chaos this causes. Rather than a subtle inciting incident, consider a cataclysmic event that drives characters to their extremes.Finally, remember that an inciting incident causes change and disrupts the status quo, but that this new reality can become a new status quo, and the secondary arc of your novel may require a new inciting incident to stay fresh. If the first inciting i ncident was the rise of the dead, then perhaps a new inciting incident is necessary to disrupt the status quo and create new tension or lead toward new characterization. If you feel your work is dragging like AMCs The Walking Dead (pun intended), then consider introducing a new inciting event and following through with a new story arc.

Womens Suffrage Biographies Key Activists

Best Tactics For Human Rights - 995 Words

Outstanding Tactics For Human Rights Protection The utmost desire of a common person is to live where he can enjoy freedom of speech and belief without fear of suppression, and enjoy equity and dignity without any humiliation or assault. The much used and abused term today is Human Rights. The term is used to protect Human rights as well as destroy it. I am not Human Rights Professional, however, I believe that Human Rights should be applied into the society as a natural rule, and the law should be applied as a protection only as a last resort. Through the fruitful ideas resulted from discussions and arguments demonstrated in the workshop organized by the Centre for Human Rights where I participated in, I can say that there are many methods used in Minneapolis that apply in the field of human rights have a tremendous impact in raising awareness among citizens of their rights and hold off victims’ oppression and compensate them psychologically, emotionally and physically, I recall most notably tactics which were applied in the abovementioned workshop, as follows: (1) Prevention: Prevention is one of the most important tactics that is used in Minneapolis’ organizations and NGOs. Prevention is the approaches that happen before violence occurs to eliminate any circumstances or conditions for violence against Human rights. It also may be the response that take place after the violence occur immediately. It is also the long term response to the continuing consequencesShow MoreRelatedAn Article On Drone Strikes1157 Words   |  5 Pagesthe premeditated plan behind the action, was it right or wrong, unassociated to the consequences. Therefore, if actions are not based on consequences, Kant’s theory would support the argument that using drone tactics to eliminate terrorists is morally unacceptable, for the following reasons: the U.S. military is using drone tactics against terrorist without their approval, and innocent lives are being taken at the push of a button. As humans, our moral duty is to treat people in such a wayRead MoreWhat Is Customer Service Agent? An Hr Manager?1527 Words   |  7 Pagessupervisors in employing the right applicants (Competency Modeling Job Analysis, n.d., pp. 1-2). The task-oriented and human relations methods are the best appropriate and the most ordinarily used tactics. It helps the supervisors in reassuring themselves that they employ the right personnel, which can increase worth to the business and have a progressive influence on the whole performance of the business (H. Canan Sumer, n.d., pp. 2-3). The human relations tactic for a customer service representativeRead MoreJustice Is The End Of Government Essay1363 Words   |  6 Pagesthe true perpetrator. Even worse, citizens frequently have no knowledge of their rights, including a class of citizens who are mentally ill. Mentally ill citizens are inept to many social skills in life and can be manipulated effortlessly. While investigators aggressively pursue a confession, for an easily attainable conviction, of mentally ill citizens, they lack the training necessary and use legal, persuasive tactics that deceives the citizens and results in a false confessions. 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I like having control in most situations, whether leading a team athletically or in decision making, I like to be the one making the calls because I trust myself more than others in doing a particular task the right way. I have heard on occasion (mostly from women) that I can be rude in the way I say things if they didnt know me better. I hate being taken advantage of and like to pride myself in sniffing out a bad deal, or fuzzy logic. However, if I am givenRead MoreEssay Philosophies and Tactics of Dr. King and Malcolm X1492 Words   |  6 PagesDuring the mid-1900s, the Civil Rights Movement was a crucial part of the United States’ growth. Many men and women both black and white contributed to the development of rights for A frican Americans and other minorities. Among them, Martin Luther King and Malcolm X had an everlasting effect on the treatment of minorities in the United States. Although their philosophies and tactics differed greatly, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X helped shape the Civil Rights Movement and make the UnitedRead MoreClient Interaction Strategy795 Words   |  4 PagesThis essay will address several tactics that will assist the consultant with an interaction strategy to communication effectively with different members of Kudler Fine Foods. The first tactic is to identify the main players in the change initiative. Next discuss the dynamic of power and leadership in the organization. Then, describe how to leverage the existing power structure to facilitate different phases of the change initiative, and last explain the influence tactics that may be used with whom,Read MoreA Campaign Against Kfc961 Words   |  4 Pages1) I personally do not support KFC Corporation or Peop le for the Ethical Treatment of Animals in this controversy. 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Is It Better to Study in Arts or Science Stream Free Essays

Question: Is it better to study in Arts or Science stream? Discuss Nowadays, the level of education is very important in an individual because the world is rapidly developing and required people to have high intellectual capabilities in order to cope with the development. Art and science streams are two fields that offer jobs in many countries in this world. People question that art stream people are usually better in social skill and they help a lot in boosting the economy of a country. We will write a custom essay sample on Is It Better to Study in Arts or Science Stream? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Others, however, believes that science stream have more stable pay and contribute a lot in humanity apart from financial benefits. Firstly, people in art streams tend to socialize more with people as their field usually need them to work with other people in order to ensure the success of their career. Communication skill also can be developing as they communicate with others a lot. For instance, in business field, businessmen or businesswomen need to meet their clients to discuss about their business progress. This required them to have good communication skill to make sure the clients can have a clear view about the business in which they are working. Business professions also make the entrepreneur to meet new people and make friends with them as business professions requires them to explore a lot and not to do the office works only. This will open their mind towards new things that happen around the world. Next, the arts and creative industry has the potential of generating high income and making the Malaysian economy more dynamic or boost industry economy, whereby in 2008 from Malaysian statistics, it contributed RM 9. billion, besides providing many jobs available. Realizing the importance of this industry, the government has allocated millions for the Creative Industry Fund to finance activities like arts, film and drama production, music, animation, advertising and developing local content. The funding in the form of loans is managed by financial banking. The development of countries such as Singapore and even the US has been helped greatly by arts and creative industry to boost their economy. An additional point is that the influx of foreign investors can put pressure on services such as marketing, and these costs can be used to increase the production in arts and creative industry. Besides that, with participation of private companies, government linked companies and involvement of investors from many countries; it can ensure that the Malaysian creative product brand names are accepted in the local market and able to compete at the regional and international levels through continuous promotions. All these factors can result in boosted of economic for the government. On the other hand, science stream have variety scopes of learning such as the biology, chemistry, physical and many more. With this different kind of learning, the opportunity of jobs becomes wider. In comparison with the art stream, one with the knowledge of biological studies can even work in engineering field even though they are in different fields. Furthermore, jobs in this stream have more stable pay instead of the art stream. The definite example is the work of a doctor. They receive same payment for every month either they work for the whole month or simply for sometimes. They can also live their life happily without even worried about having shortness of money in this develop country. In addition, this field of study contributes to humanity in many ways. In medical field, the new discovery of various drugs and treatment methods helps to increase the lifespan of humans. Justice can be served through forensics as samples collected from the scene of crime can be traced to any perpetrators. Biotechnology and genetic engineering have the potential to make stem cells transplant a success in the near future. Engineering provides humans with the latest and trendiest technology with the aim of making life more comfortable. Last but not least, research by scientists help to confirm any suspected hypothesis such as gravity and effectiveness of antibiotics. There are equal advantages in studying arts and science field. Hence, this solely depends on different individual’s interest and attitude. One may argue that science stream provides a stable pay but if one is not interested in that field, it brings no meaning at all in studying that particular field. Likewise, if one is motivated and inspired to succeed, it does not matter which field he is studying because regardless of science or arts stream, as long as he is has the motivation and interest, he is bound to succeed. In a nutshell, interest and attitude play an important role in determining which field is more suitable for one’s choice of study. How to cite Is It Better to Study in Arts or Science Stream?, Papers

Currency Depreciation on Financial Performance †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Currency Depreciation on Financial Performance. Answer: Introduction: 21st century is the era of internationalisation, where countries are getting attached with each other for mutual economic development (Altback and Wit 2015). For instance, Australia being one of the developed nations performs substantial amount of trade with the countries like UK, US and others (Cooper 2014). In order to shape the economy of the nations, international trade, plays an important role through determining the level of future growth. Exchange rate, on the other hand being the comparative value of domestic currency against the foreign currency takes a vital role in order to determine the flow of international trade. When it comes to Australia, then it can be seen that the country has a moderate exchange rate compared to the US dollar that makes it one of the stable economy in the world(Gabaix and Maggiori 2015). Determining the exchange rate is one of the toughest jobs due to eve evolving market scenario, however, over the period researchers has came with various solution (Corazza and Malliaris 2015). Among many, supply and demand framework can be considered as the simplest yet effect tool to determine the foreign exchange rate market. (Gilpin 2016) According to the given requirement for this task, below is the analysis of Australia US exchange rate through supply and demand framework as shown in figure 1: The figure below highlights the demand and supply framework of Australian exchange rate, where the demand curve D is drawn, which is based on the derived demand of the Australian goods and services. On the other hand Supply curve S in figure 1, has been drawn considering the importable aggregate demand (Caballero, Farhi and Gourinchas 2016). Let the initial equilibrium takes place at point E, where the AUD/USD exchange rate is 80C USD against every unit of AUD and the AUD demand is Q. Now if there is rise in the demand of the AUD to the US citizens, then it will shift the demand curve D to rightward D1 position. At D1, equilibrium occurs at E1, where the AUDUSD is hypothetically as high as 81C USD for each unit of AUD. On the flip side, if there is fall in the demand of AUD to the US citizens, then it will lead to fall in demand from D to D2. At the new demand situation, equilibrium occurs at E2, where AUD hypothetically fell to 77C USD for each unit of AUD. Thus, depending upon the demand and supply framework, AUD/USD exchange can easily be explained as well the factors that can alter the same (Jammazi et al. 2015) Considering the explanation of foreign exchange rate scenario of the Australia US trade, it can be stated that Australia is one of the developed nations that follows the flexible market system (Wiedmann et al. 2015). Under various circumstances foreign exchange of Australia can get altered and supply and demand can point those factors easily. Factors that can lead to the fluctuation in the Australian dollar are as follows: Inflation rate with rise in inflation rate, there will be reduction in the demand of Australian dollar to the US citizen. Lowered demand will lead to fall in exchange rate on behalf of the Australia and it will cause depreciation of the Australian currency (Weale et al. 2015). Interest rate with change in the interest rate, there will be change in the foreign investment in the Australian bank, which in turn can lead to alteration in the foreign exchange of the Australian dollar. If the interest rate gets higher, then it would cost rise in exchange rate of AUD in terms of USD (Engel 2014). On the other hand a fall in interest rate will lead to depreciation of the AUD in terms of the USD. Growth rate with better gross prospect Australia can have their AUD appreciated in terms of the USD. Better growth will lead to rise in capability and stability of the nation and it will reflect on the US investors mind too. With better growth prospect, Australia can provide a positive outlook on the foreign investors, which will inherently appreciate the AUD. Nominal exchange rate can be acknowledged as the domestic currency number needed have a unit of foreign currency (Eichenbaum et al. 2017). If there is rise in nominal exchange rate, then it will lead to nominal depreciation and if there is fall then it will be nominal appreciation. Trade Weighted Index (TWI) on the other hand is one of the the multilateral exchange rate calculated through weighted average to domestic currency and foreign currencies utilising the average trade values between two countries (Caselli et al. 2015). Nominal exchange rate of figure 2 highlights the real AUDUSD exchange rate scenario. From the diagram it can be seen that there has been various ups and down in the nominal exchange rate between the two countries. AUDUSD nominal exchange rate hit its lowest during mid of 2015 due to recession in the US market (Jung and Kuester 2015). And next to this, nominal exchange rate of Australia has been trying hard to stabilise itself. From the upward sloping nominal exchange rate line it can be said that, present rise in iron ore demand and slump in the USD is leading the AUD to rise. Highlights the TWI of the Australia that highlights over the time there has been various fluctuations caused by the alteration in trade between two countries. During September of the 2015, there has been lowest amount of trade between the Australia and US due to recession in the US market and since then the trade has been rising between these two countries (Deutsch 2015. Post recession of 2015, it can be seen that there has been a rise in the TWI and presently with higher trade value between two countries TWI is tending towards a better future, highlighted by upward sloping TWI in the figure 3. Given article highlights various driving forces that can alter the AUD exchange rate in terms of the USD. The article initially highlights that there is rise in the AUD in terms of the USD, due to the recent slump in the USD (Ismail 2018). In addition to this recent rise in the export of the Australian tech metals has enhanced the countrys exchange rate in terms of the USD, however, once the mining boom is over and the USD get back to its strong position, then AUD will again slit back to the 70C bracket. In addition to this, the article has highlighted that Australian mining market is facing boom, however soon Chinese iron industry boom will constrain the same leading to fall in the AUD in terms of the USD (Gauvin and Rebillard 2015). The report additionally highlighted that there is fall in the Fed rate, which is causing a reduction in the investment in US banks, and a rise in investment of the Australian banks. Once the Fed starts to raise the interest rate, it will dry up the AUDU SD exchange rate again, as asserted by the given report. It can be seen that hypothetically Australian exchange rate demand and supply comes at equilibrium at point E, where the exchange rate is Ex and the quantity demanded of the AUD is Q. Now if there is rise in interest rate or country face growth due to expansionary fiscal policy, then it will lead to higher AUD demand to the US citizens. Higher demand will shift the initial demand curve D to D1 leading to rise in exchange rate from Ex to Ex1. On the other hand, if the AUD gets depreciated in terms of the USD, then it will lead to fall in the demand of the AUD, shown in the diagram by D2. At D2 demand curve, equilibrium occurs at E2 point, where the exchange rate is Ex2. So, it is clear that factor explained in the given article can easily be explained with the demand and supply framework of exchange rate (Feenstra 2015). If there is depreciation of one currency in terms of the other currency, then has both the positive and dark side. For instance, if there is depreciation of the domestic currency in terms of the foreign currency, then it would lead to better export for the domestic country (Cole and Nightingale 2016). With lower price of the domestic goods and services, foreign individuals will prefer to opt them at higher quantity, which in turn will lead to rise in the export and enhanced Balance of Payment for the country (Gabaix and Maggiori 2015). On the other hand, domestic investors or importer will face loss because there importable of buyable will become costlier with depreciation of the domestic currency with respect to the foreign currency. Considering this general economic framework of depreciation of domestic currency, being the manager of the firm that import electrical machinery, it can be said that the firm will face loss. With AUD became depreciated in terms of the USD, firms importa ble will become costlier, which will lead them to rise price. With higher price demand will fall, which will force them to price rise again (Mbogo 2015). The cycle will continue until there is equilibrium in demand and supply situation takes place for the importable. Whatever the equilibrium is, with lower AUD in terms of USD, importer will face loss and on the other hand here will be rise in export. Higher export will enhance the Australian balance of payment, which will ultimately lead to better off to the Australian economy. If the Australian dollar stabilise around 72C USD for each AUD, then various corrective measure can be taken by the Australian reserve bank to bring the AUD back to the 80C mark. Australian economy is growing at a stable 6.9% annual growth rate, however recent reduction in the Australian iron ore demand is leading to fall in the AUD in terms of the USD (Weale et al. 2015). This has effectively reduced the AUD exchange rate because Australian mining sector provide a substantial part to its GDP. In addition to this, it has been seen from the given article, there is a widening gap in Australian and US interest rate (Ismail 2018). With interest augmentation of the Fed by US, Australia can soon loss some amount of foreign investment, which will lead to fall in AUD exchange rate (Hofman et al. 2016). Thus as the corrective measurement to bring he AUD to 80C USD, Australian government need to utilise the tech metals export boom and additionally go for the export promotion. It will constrain the Chinese iron ore boom and help the Australian iron ore to insert into the US market . Next to this, Reserve Bank of Australia needs to enhance the interest rate, which will lead to rise in AUD through higher foreign investment. Above mentioned steps can certainly bring in the AUD to its desired position, however when it comes to the reasonability of the policies, then it is subjective in nature. As mentioned by the Gantz (2016), there is both good and bad side of domestic currency appreciation in terms of the foreign currency. For instance, if the AUD gets appreciated, then it will lead to rise in the import, which in turn will cause a reduction in Balance of Payments of the country. Moreover, Australia under the AUSFTA pact cannot bring in import substitution to gauge the rise in import from the US. In addition to this if the Reserve Bank of Australia takes steps to enhance the interest rate, then it will lead to fall in market liquidity, which will further escalate into reduced demand (Bramble 2015). Thus, it is highly questionable, that whether the aforementioned strategies can be a reasonable economic policy or not. However, if the Australian government can take corrective measure in the form of import substitution, technology generation and export promotion, then it will certainly make the above mentioned strategies an effective policy for appreciating the AUD in terms of the USD. Reference: Altbach, P.G. and De Wit, H., 2015. Internationalization and global tension: Lessons from history.Journal of studies in international education,19(1), pp.4-10. Bramble, T., 2015. The Australian economy after the mining boom.Red Flag. Caballero, R.J., Farhi, E. and Gourinchas, P.O., 2016. Safe asset scarcity and aggregate demand.American Economic Review,106(5), pp.513-18. Caselli, F., Koren, M., Lisicky, M. and Tenreyro, S., 2015.Diversification through trade(No. w21498). National Bureau of Economic Research. Cole, D. and Nightingale, S., 2016. Sensitivity of Australian trade to the exchange rate.Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin, pp.13-20. Cooper, R.N., 2014. Exchange rate choices. Corazza, M. and Malliaris, A.T.G., 2015. Multi-fractality in foreign currency markets. Deutsch, K.W., 2015.Political Community and the North American Area. Princeton University Press. Eichenbaum, M., Johannsen, B.K. and Rebelo, S., 2017.Monetary policy and the predictability of nominal exchange rates(No. w23158). National Bureau of Economic Research. Eichenbaum, M., Johannsen, B.K. and Rebelo, S., 2017.Monetary policy and the predictability of nominal exchange rates(No. w23158). National Bureau of Economic Research. Engel, C., 2014. Exchange rates and interest parity. InHandbook of international economics(Vol. 4, pp. 453-522). Elsevier. Fernandes, K. (2017). Macroeconomic Factors Causing Variations in the Exchange Rate of the Indian Rupee.International Journal on Global Business Management Research,6(2), 49. Gabaix, X. and Maggiori, M., 2015. International liquidity and exchange rate dynamics.The Quarterly Journal of Economics,130(3), pp.1369-1420. Gantz, D.A., 2016. Increasing the Host State's Regulatory Flexibility Under FTA Investment Chapters: US Approaches Under NAFTA, the AUSFTA and the TPP. Gauvin, L. and Rebillard, C., 2015. Towards Recoupling? Assessing the Global Impact of a Chinese Hard Landing Through Trade and Commodity Price Channels. Gilpin, R., 2016.The political economy of international relations. Princeton University Press. Hofmann, B., Shim, I. and Shin, H., 2016. Sovereign yields and the risk-taking channel of currency appreciation. Ismail, N. (2018).Australian dollar tipped to slide back to 70 US cents. [online] The Sydney Morning Herald. Available at: https://www.smh.com.au/business/investments/australian-dollar-tipped-to-slide-back-to-70-us-cents-20180129-h0pp8v.html [Accessed 26 Mar. 2018]. Jammazi, R., Lahiani, A. and Nguyen, D.K., 2015. A wavelet-based nonlinear ARDL model for assessing the exchange rate pass-through to crude oil prices.Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money,34, pp.173-187. Jung, P. and Kuester, K., 2015. Optimal labor-market policy in recessions.American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics,7(2), pp.124-56. Mbogo, M.M., 2015.The effect of currency depreciation on financial performance: a study of manufacturing and allied companies listed on the Nairobi Securities Exchange(Doctoral dissertation, United States International University Africa). Weale, M., Blake, A., Christodoulakis, N., Meade, J.E. and Vines, D., 2015.Macroeconomic policy: inflation, wealth and the exchange rate(Vol. 8). Routledge. Wiedmann, T.O., Schandl, H., Lenzen, M., Moran, D., Suh, S., West, J. and Kanemoto, K., 2015. The material footprint of nations.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,112(20), pp.6271-6276.

Bible Translations in German and English

Bible Translations in German and English Essentially, every Bible is a translation. The ancient elements that became what we now call the Bible were originally written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek on papyrus, leather, and clay. Some of the originals have been lost and exist only in copies that suffer from errors and omissions that have dismayed biblical scholars and translators.   More modern editions, using more recent discoveries such as the  Dead Sea Scrolls, try to render the Bible as accurately as possible from the ancient originals. By the end of the 20th century, the Bible had been translated into more than 1,100 different world languages and dialects. The history of biblical translation is long and fascinating, but here well concentrate on the German connections- of which there are many. Ulfilas The earliest Germanic version of the Bible was Ulfilas Gothic translation from Latin and Greek. From Ulfilas came much of the Germanic Christian vocabulary that is still in use today. Later Charlemagne (Karl der Große) would foster Frankish (Germanic) biblical translations in the ninth century. Over the years, prior to the appearance of the first printed German Bible in 1466, various German and German dialect translations of the scriptures were published. The Augsburger Bibel of 1350 was a complete New Testament, while the Wenzel Bible (1389) contained the Old Testament in German. Gutenberg Bible   Johannes Gutenbergs so-called 42-line Bible, printed in Mainz in 1455, was in Latin. About 40 copies exist today in various states of completeness. It was Gutenbergs invention of printing with movable type that made the Bible, in any language, vastly more influential and important. It was now possible to produce Bibles and other books in greater quantities at a lower cost. First Printed Bible in German Before Martin Luther was even born, a German-language Bible was published in 1466, using Gutenbergs invention. Known as the Mentel Bible, this Bible  was a literal translation of the Latin Vulgate. Printed in Strassburg, the Mentel Bible appeared in some 18 editions until it was replaced by Luthers new translation in 1522. Die Luther Bibel The most influential German Bible, and the one that continues to be most widely used in the Germanic world today (it saw its last official revised edition in 1984), was translated from the original Hebrew and Greek by Martin Luther (1483-1546) in the record time of just ten weeks (New Testament) during his involuntary stay in the Wartburg Castle near Eisenach, Germany. Luthers first complete Bible in German appeared in 1534. He continued to revise his translations up until his death. In response to Luthers Protestant Bible, the German Catholic Church published its own versions, most notably the Emser Bibel, which became the standard German Catholic Bible. Luthers German Bible also became the primary source for other northern European versions in Danish, Dutch, and Swedish. Scriptures and  Prayers in German and English German du is equal to thou in English. Modern English versions of the Bible use you since thou has faded from English, but du is still used in German. Nevertheless, revised versions of Luthers 1534 Bible have updated many other language changes, using more modern usage to replace the outdated 16th century German. Here are some oft-quoted Biblical passages in German, with English translations. The Book of Genesis Genesis  - LutherbibelKapitel Die Schà ¶pfung Am Anfang schuf Gott Himmel und Erde.Und die Erde war wà ¼st und leer, und es war finster auf der Tiefe; und der Geist Gottes schwebte auf dem Wasser.Und Gott sprach: Es werde Licht! Und es ward Licht.Und Gott sah, daß das Licht gut war. Da schied Gott das Licht von der Finsternisund nannte das Licht Tag und die Finsternis Nacht. Da ward aus Abend und Morgen der erste Tag.   Genesis - King James,  Chapter One:  Creation   In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.   Psalm 23  Lutherbibel:  Ein Psalm Davids   Der HERR ist mein Hirte, mir wird nichts mangeln.Er weidet mich auf einer grà ¼nen Aue und fà ¼hret mich zum frischen Wasser.Er erquicket meine Seele. Er fà ¼hret mich auf rechter Straße um seines Namens willen.Und ob ich schon wanderte im finstern Tal, fà ¼rchte ich kein Unglà ¼ck;         denn du bist bei mir, dein Stecken und Stab trà ¶sten mich.Du bereitest vor mir einen Tisch im Angesicht meiner Feinde. Du salbest mein Haupt mit Ãâ€"l und schenkest mir voll ein.Gutes und Barmherzigkeit werden mir folgen mein Leben lang, und ich werde bleiben         im Hause des HERRN immerdar. Psalm 23   King James:  A Psalm of David The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want.He maketh me to lie down in green pastures: he leadeth me beside the still waters.He restoreth my soul. He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his names sake.Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil:         for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me.Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies: Thou anointest         my head with oil: my cup runneth over.Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. Gebete (Prayers) Das Vaterunser (Paternoster) - Kirchenbuch (1908)  Vater unser, der Du bist im Himmel. Geheiliget werde Dein Name. Dein Reich komme. Dein Wille geschehe, wie im Himmel, also auch auf Erden. Unser tglich Brot gieb uns heute. Und vergieb uns unsere Schuld, als wir vergieben unsern Schuldigern. Und fà ¼hre uns nicht in Versuchung; Sondern erlà ¶se uns von dem ÃÅ"bel. Denn Dein ist das Reich und die Kraft und die Herrlichkeit in Ewigkeit. Amen. The Lords Prayer (Paternoster) - King James  Our Father who  art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, in earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. Amen. Das Gloria Patri - Kirchenbuch   Ehr sei dem Vater und dem Sohn und dem Heiligen Geist, wie es war im Anfang, jetzt und immerdar und von Ewigkeit zu Ewigkeit. Amen. The Gloria Patri - Book of Common Prayer  Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost; as it was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be, world without end. Amen. Da ich ein Kind war, redete ich wie ein Kind und war klug wie ein Kind und hatte kindische Anschlge. Da ich aber ein Mann ward, tat ich ab, was kindisch war. 1. Korinther 13,11 When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child: but when I became a man, I put away childish things.   I Corinthians 13:11 The First Five Books of the German Bible The first five books of the Bible in German are referred to as Mose (Moses) 1-5. They correspond to Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy in English. Many of the names of the other books are very similar or identical in German and English, but a few are not that obvious. Below youll find all of the names of the books of the Old and New Testaments listed in the order they appear.   Genesis :  1 Mose, Genesis Exodus:  2 Mose, Exodus Leviticus:  3 Mose, Levitikus Numbers:  4 Mose, Numeri Deuteronomy:  5 Mose, Deuternomium Joshua: Josua Judges:  Richter Ruth:  Rut I Samuel:  1 Samuel II Samuel:  2 Samuel I Kings:  1 Kà ¶nige II Kings:  2 Kà ¶nige I Chronicles:  1 Chronik II Chronicles:  2 Chronik Ezra:  Esra Nehemiah:  Nehemia Esther:  Ester Job:  Hiob Psalms: Der Psalter Proverbs:  Sprueche Ecclesiastes:  Prediger Song of Solomon: Das Hohelied Salomos Isaiah:  Jesaja Jeremiah: Jeremia Lamentations Klagelieder Ezekial:  Hesekiel Daniel:  Daniel Hosea:  Hosea Joel: Joel Amos: Amos Obadiah:  Obadja Jonah:  Jona Micah:  Mica Nahum:  Nahum Habakkuk: Habakuk Zephaniah:  Zephanja Haggai:  Haggai Zechariah: Sacharja Malachi:  Maleachi

The Factor of Audience

The Factor of Audience Imagine the following scenario: you have been asked to compose an essay about your life that your children will someday read. What would you say? How would you say it? What details would you include knowing that it would only be read by your children?Now imagine that you have been given the same task, only this time the essay would be published in a national magazine. Knowing that this essay would be read by your friends and family- as well as by your employer, your peers, and by perfect strangers- how would it differ from the first one? Would the details be different? Would your tone change? Would you leave out a few details for the sake of possible embarrassment or misunderstanding?In each case, the audience of your work made a difference in how you write. In fact, one of the first things you learn as a writer is the factor of audience. Regardless of the genre, style, or purpose of your writing, consideration of audience is vital in writing effectively. In the above scenarios, your tone, choice of words, and depth of intimacy in your writing would probably differ between the two essays- although both were basically on the same topic. In a similar sense, having an understanding of your audience before you approach any writing task is crucial to a successful outcome.This fact is often most difficult for academic writing. If you are writing as a class assignment, then the obvious audience for your work will be your professor (or TA, or class peers). Lets take, for example, an assignment on Shakespeares poetic techniques. You are aware that your professor is a preeminent Shakespearian scholar, so there is no need to explain the terminology you mention within your writing, or the credentials of your resources used- right?Not so fast. While academic writing assignments do assume a certain level of knowledge with the topic, if you fail to follow through with your arguments and explanations in a concise and thorough way, your professor could see it as a weakness in y our writing. This is especially true of most undergraduate-level writing, as professors tend to want to see your ability to explain your thesis, rather than your ability to astound them with your relevant and innovative slant on the topic. However, academic writing for dissertations and future publication in academic journals is slightly different. In these cases, it is generally safe to assume that your audience is familiar with the basics of the topic, requiring less explanation on your part of the commonly known terms and/or theories.In other forms of writing- particularly creative writing- audience should always be your first consideration before putting pen to paper (or fingers to the keyboard). If you are writing an article, short story, or novel for hopes of future publication, knowing your audience will be the most important part of the process- outside of good writing, of course. Many writers even use the factor of audience as a springboard for coming up with the content, r ather than the other way around. They might find a particular niche or magazine that is looking for fresh content, and then later decide upon a topic after researching the intended audience. For example, a regional magazine that focuses on rural living would have a readership interested in all facets of country life. A writer seeking publication within this magazine would consider the readership, read past articles published by the magazine to determine the reading level of the readership, then come up with a concept and topic accordingly. In this situation, an article about heirloom recipes or seasonal gardens would definitely be chosen for publication over one about public transportation or urban schools.Editors should consider audience as thoroughly as writers should- if not more so. One of the first things an editor will deliberate when reading a manuscript for possible publication is whether or not there will be an audience for that book or article, and if so, does it give them what they want? Editors are trained to know what people want to read, and generally have a good eye in determining if a particular writer hits the mark. They will edit your manuscript or rough draft accordingly, and offer suggestions for changes that might broaden your audience (for more sales) or help you in relating better to a specific age group or gender.When you are editing your own work, the easiest way to factor in your audience is to read it as if you were your own reader, rather than the writer. While this sounds easier said than done, it is really just a matter of stepping back from your writing. Usually this is best done if you wait a day or two after youve finished writing, and then read it with your reader in mind. Ask yourself the following questions: If I were reading this for the first time, would I be confused about something? and Is this something I would be interested in reading if I were a [insert your audience here]?Considering your audience is a mixture of mar keting and psychology. You must first question who would be your reader, and then question if they would identify with, or enjoy reading, your work. If you take the time to brainstorm these details before you even begin writing, youll save yourself a lot of time and energy by zeroing in on the perfect tone and topic for your intended audience.

History of Hip-Hop Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History of Hip-Hop - Essay Example This essay begins from explanation that the music that is known to us today as hip-hop was then called disco rap. It was a man named Keith Cowboy, a rapper with the band Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five that coined the famous term â€Å"Hip-hop†. The term â€Å"hip-hop† that is analyzed in the first part of the essay was used for the first time in print by Steven Hagar, an author in his work the Village Voice in the year 1984. But this does not imply that the Keith Cowboy was the true pioneer of hip-hop music and culture, but on the contrary, hip-hop was there even before Cowboy was born, only then it was known by a different name. This essay tries to trace the history of hip-hop. And for that one will need to go about four decades back to the 1970’s, to the city of Bronx. The essay describes the history of the music genre to 21th century and to the times when the rappers started incorporating serious issues into their lyrics. The Jamaican born Clive Campbe ll who later famously came to be known as Kool Herc or DJ Kool Herc can be said to be the ‘godfather‘ of hip-hop music. Essay focuses not only on his impact to the genre, but also provides the reader with detailed analysis on the 80s and 90s history of hip-hop. The 80’s saw a dramatic change in the hip-hop scenario. The hip-hop of the 70’s got more complex as it developed more. A glance of Hip-Hop through the 80’s, the 90’s and the new Millennia is also described by the researcher. In concluion, the researcher suggests to enjoy the present scenario of hip-hop music and what will follow next.... MC would just go on about pairing nonsensical rhyming words, making a clown of their friends and enemies with their witty words, hence taking the shape of folk music. It was later, that the rappers started incorporating serious issues into their lyrics. (History, n.d.) DJ Kool Herc the Pioneer of Hip-Hop The Jamaican born Clive Campbell who later famously came to be known as Kool Herc or DJ Kool Herc can be said to be the 'godfather 'of hip-hop music. He was born in Jamaica on April 16th 1955 and was a Jamaican DJ by profession. The credit for making hip-hop music what it is today goes to DJ Kool Herc. He was the one to experiment with the segregation of the instrumental part of a record and give more emphasis to the drumbeat or the "break". He used two turn tables, a set up used by the DJs and the same record in each of the turn tables hence elongating the break of the beat. This method of breaking the beat of the hard funk and rock records and mixing them with Latin percussion then formed and still forms the basis of hip-hop music. Later Kool Herc used dancers to dance in tune to his prolongated breaks and guess what, there were break-dancer. Kool Herc influenced many other greats of hip-hop including the Afrika Bambaataa and Joseph Saddler a.k.a. Grandmaster Flash who later starte d DJ-ing in Kool's fashion. It was due to Kool's impact that Bambaataa a notorious general one timer of the Black Spades gang in Bronx converted himself and his followers into the non-violent group of Zulu Nation. Of this transition period Steven Hagar writes, "For over five years the Bronx had lived in constant terror of street gangs. Suddenly, in 1975, they disappeared almost as quickly as they had arrived. This happened because something better came along to replace the gangs. That

Schooling Children with Down Syndrome by Freire, Greene and Kliewer Essay

Schooling Children with Down Syndrome by Freire, Greene and Kliewer - Essay Example In this ‘banking concept of education’ students are seen as â€Å"adaptable, manageable beings. The more students work at storing the deposits entrusted to them, the less they develop the critical consciousness which would result from their intervention in the world as transformers of that world.† (Friere, 1997, p.54) Under this system not only is there a supposed knowledge asymmetry between the teacher and the pupil, but the former also holds professional authority that is not always grounded on merit. Moreover, this banking education minimizes or annuls the students’ creative energies so as to serve the interests of the oppressors, whose primary motive is not progress or critical inquiry. To the contrary, under the humanitarian veil of the educators lies their intention to perpetuate the status quo. Maxine Greene’s article titled Teaching for Social Justice is similar in tenor to that of Paulo Freire’s. The history of human societies is full of instances of the privileged few (the oppressors) dominating the majority rest through explicit and implicit means. Where brute force proved unviable, sophisticated indoctrination through education ensured domination. Further, â€Å"the privileged few were the ones with the opportunities to map and dominate the linguistic universe. The imbalance, the undeserved advantages in that domain as well as in the socioeconomic and political worlds is evidences of the most glaring social injustice.† (Greene, 1988 p.29) It is in this context that an educational system be devised, whose end is to ensure that each citizen is at the least entitled to develop and build his/her â€Å"intellectual, social, emotional, and expressive capacities†. (Greene, 1988, p.29) Consistent with the arguments made by Paulo Freire, Marine Greene too advocates a new way of looking at our educational institutions and their underlying motives. Contrary to what the system produces, she espouses Teachin g for Social Justice. Here, teaching is to project â€Å"what we believe ought to be – not merely where moral frameworks are concerned, but in material arrangements for people in all spheres of society. Moreover, teaching for social justice is teaching for the sake of arousing the kinds of vivid, reflective, experiential responses that might move students to come together in serious efforts to understand what social justice actually means and what it might demand.† (Greene, 1988, p.30) Kliewer’s article focusing on the special needs of Down syndrome children is also of a similar vein to the other two articles. The author feels that current understanding of this health condition and schooling possibilities for children afflicted with it is quite limited. (Kliewer, 1988) And hence educators should be more open and inclusive of children of different capabilities as they draw up their curricula. In essence, there is much convergence in the content and thrust of the three articles as they express their concern about mainstream education today. After having read these three articles and based on my own educational experience in childhood, I am mostly in agreement with the views expressed by Freire, Greene and Kliewer. Formal education is something most children in our country have the privilege of attending. To its credit, the education system in the United States has extended literacy and math skills to several generations of students. As a result, the country overall has become more educated. The percentage of young adults passing high-school

The impact of gender in research

The impact of gender in research Does the gender of the interviewer effect the response rate, interview and the results obtained? Many researchers have investigated the effect that interviewers gender has on research, this paper seeks to examine if there is an effect and how relevant that effect is. It will draw on academic papers, business examples and a case study. Hyman et al (1954) were one of the first to examine the effect gender-of-the interviewer has on the interview process; they found respondents replied differently to male and female researchers. Since then there has been an abundance of research in the field, much of the research is based on and argues that gender-of-interviewer effects are evident on, topics related specifically to feminism, politics and other sensitive issues. This paper will analyse the research and apply it to a case study. With the main aim to determine if the gender-of-interview affects all interview areas or whether it is topic specific. It is important to understand what is meant by interviewer effects; interviewer errors are expected to occur differently in every interview whereas interviewer effects refers to a specific interviewer characteristic i.e. gender (Dijkstra 1983). Interviewer effects look at how interviewer variance can bias the results of research. The case study being looked at took place in Oldham, it was a consultancy project investigating participation rates of food waste recycling, with the main objective to increase participation rates. The methodology used was semi-structured interviews and drop off questionnaires. The interviewers were made up of two women and three men. Researchers went out in pairs, for safety reasons, the researchers went out in four pairings, three pairs made up by a women and male interviewer and the final pairing was comprised of two male researchers. Due to time constraints and the nature of the work this case study was unable to talk to residents about their impression of interviewer-gender-effects. However all interviewers were interviewed extensively by the author of this paper, to grasp their view of the effect gender had. The main topics covered were response rates, lengths of interviews and results obtained. Does the gender-of-interviewer affect response rate? Gender can affect the response rate; Smith (1972) suggests that women are less likely to invite men interviewers into their home explaining that it is due to the perceived danger, this argues Smith can be an issue for male interviewers conducting research. When looking at the Oldham Case study this was evident, the response rate for the mixed paring had a higher response rate to the male only pairing. The mixed pairings had a response rate average of ? and the male only pairing had a response rate average of  ¼. This is backed up by Dommeyer (2008) whose study examined how using a photo in the cover letter of a drop off questionnaire effects responses. Female interviewers prove to obtain a higher response rate. His research found that rivalling the gender was only productive if they were female. Bean and Medewitz (1988) had similar results when sending out cover letters with a female signature; a higher response rate was produced than when a male signature was used 35% and 26% resp onse rate respectively. Moreover, Catonia et al (1996) experiments found that on a phone interview when respondents were given the opportunity to request a gender 82%, of women and 72% of male respondents did request with the majority selecting a female, suggesting that respondents prefer female interviewers. When interviewed, Keith from the Oldham case study expressed: Sandra seemed to get a higher response rate then I did, we quickly realised this and Sandra became the interviewer and I the scriber. Johnson and Delamater (1976) discuss, whilst looking at response rates in sex surveys, the effect gender has on respondents agreeing to be interviewed. They argue that the gender of the interviewer can have a substantial effect on response levels; attributing it to the type of survey suggesting that if they are embarrassed about the topic being discussed they may be less likely to opt to participate, especially with someone from the opposite gender. In the Oldham case study this can be compared to respondents who do not participate in recycling and are therefore are less likely to agree to be interviewed, however the gender of the interviewer is unlikely to make a difference there. Benny et al (1956) notes that male interviewers gain fewer responses to female interviewers and most of these are from female respondents. Rourke and Lakner (1989) discuss the gender bias that exists within the data collection.. How does gender affect the results obtained? Huddy et al (1997) looked at the effect that the gender-of-interviewer had in two surveys, where male and female interviewers were randomly assigned to interview male and female respondents. With the first survey; gender of interviewer had more of an effect on less educated and younger respondents. However these results were not replicated in the second survey. Yang and Yu (2008) argues that well educated people are not affected by gender as much because they are more use to inter-gender relations. Huddy et al (1997) also attribute it to the fact that people that are more educated are more confident in the company of the other gender. WHAT IS EDUCATION IN OLDHAM? Many researchers have suggested that the gender of the interviewer only has an effect on certain topics. Huddy et al (1997) suggests that the gender-of-interviewer is more predominant when; politics and views on feminism are discussed. Bellou and Del Boca (1980) found stronger gender-of-interviewer effects among women respondents on questions about the existence of gender inequality whereas men tend to be more affected when questions about women movements arose. Flores-Macias and Lawson (2006) claim that in the past research has shown effect on social and political issues when interviewed by different gender. Using a survey on households in Mexico the research tries to add to the field, they found gender effects were confined to sensitive questions, they concluded gender-interviewer effects are limited to gender topics. TOPIC OF RECYCLING In contrast Kane and Macauley (1983) note the opposite; Women were most effected by questions on womens movements for example collective action and women shared interest, while men were more effected by the interviewers gender when answering work-related gender equalities. Gender bias was highest with questions related to controversial politics and womens movements. Kane and Macaulay (1993) research looks at the effects of interviewer gender on responses in particular on gender-related survey questions. They look at if gender effects are present and how it differs from male and female. Huddy et al (1997) argue respondents are susceptible to gender-of-interviewer effects across a broad spectrum of gender-linked items. Groves and Fultz (1983) found that economic indicators receive more optimistic responses when interviewed by a male interviewer rather than a female interviewer. Landis et al (1973) reported that when women were interviewed by male interviewers they gave more feminist responses on womens roles. Kane and Macaulay (1993) summarise stating after analysing gender-attitude it is clear that interviewer-gender bias is present, it tends to include respondents giving a critical response to female interviewers than to male. On standard debate topics men are more likely to be effected by the gender of the interviewer and are less likely on less familiar topics. Womens responses vary dramatically in their responses to male and female interviewers on various issues. They did not see a vast difference in interviewer gender effects for example respondents to male respondents. It is therefore questionable on it social power effects conversational power in the interview process. Both male and female respondents are at times affected by interviewer gender. In contrast Herod (1993), who is a geographer, believes that the gender-of-interviewer can effect responses on any topic discussed. He argues that gender relations are an important aspect that can shape the interview process, gender can shape the type of data collected especially when carrying out interviews. Backing this up is McDowell (1992) who explains how interviews raise the issue of gender, Schaenberger (1992) agrees gender makes a difference (p.217). In the Oldham case study gender.. look at results! Herod (1993) gender can shape the use of interviews as a research tool (p.306). Even when all respondents are of the same gender, gender bias still shapes the interactions between interviewer and interviewee. Feminists support this statement gender is significant in society it is always going to effect gender relations in the research process (Keller 1985). Herods paper looks at work conducted across different disciplines on gender and its effect on interviewing. Turner and Martin (1984) in the classic work discuss how the gender-of-interviewer and the respondent has significant effect, the different options (male interviewer, female respondent/ male interviewer male respondent etc) have different effects in influencing opinions and feelings. Eagly and Carli (1981) showed a statistical relationship between the gender of the interviewer and outcome of the interviews showing both; respondents giving different answers to male and female researchers, but also researchers interpreting it differently. Thus this demonstrates that an interviewers gender can affect respondents answers. Looking at the Oldham case this can be demonstrated through interpretation of answers, when looking at how the answers were interpreted it is completely a subjective task, when a male was interrupting it, the results appeard whereas when a female was interrupting it is seemed. Even when it is the same gender there is an effect, Aries (1976) suggested that men tend to be more aggressive and macho to a male interviewer. Herod (1993) explains whereas a male interviewer may display one type of behaviour with female researcher he may show a different one to a male therefore obtaining different results. Oldham case study.. Piliavan and Martin (1978) found that in a group setting men and women acted differently, in the Oldham council case study, researchers went out in pairs often a man and women researcher, Aries (1976) explains that she observed women were less likely to interact than men in a mixed group. This could have affected female respondents answers when being interviewed by a male and female researcher in the Oldham case study. Moreover Herod (1993) notes the difference in the way male and female genders interpret information, on an interview he refers to the type of language used. Carli (1991) claims that women and men use language differently. Lakoff (1975) argues that women have to be socialised to use language that is less assertive then men and womens expressions are tentative. Herod (1993) puts forward that these stereotypes have implications when men and women interpret language. Sociolinguist, Deborah Tanen (1990) claims that men and women have different beliefs of how conversations are meant to work, as well as different views on the role of conversational interaction and building relationships (Wolfram Schilling-Estes, 1998). Herod (1993) explains that there is a danger in trying to generalise about gender relations in such broad categories. Arguing that they themselves did not look at race or class and how these shape gender. There is a need to look at how gender can mean different things in different context. Interviewing is about how interviewers generate meanings and understandings. Are men or women more affected by gender-of-interviewer? Whelcher (1987) and Ballou and Del Boca (1980) both argue that male respondents show more effect from gender-of-interviewer. Whelcher (1987) documents that men give more democratic responses to male interviewers as they try to give the response that they feel the male interviewer wants to hear. Ballou and Del Boca (1980) states how men give more democratic responses to female interviewers. Landis et al (1973) explain that it is expected that during an interview relationships are formed between respondent and interviewer and thus the behaviour of the respondent is influenced by their perception of the circumstances. Warren (1988) argues that women are better at building a rapport when interviewing. Landis et al (1973) found from their results that the women interviewed gave a more feminist response to the male interviewer, noting that the statistics were significant. They summarise that the gender of the interviewer does have a marked effect on response to women. Hyman et al (1954) found that gender of interviewer effected female respondents results when a male asked the question; 61% agreed with the statement, but when they were interviewed by women only 49% agreed. Hyman concluded women felt more obliged to give conventional opinions to a male interviewer. Benny et al (1956) note that both men and women act differently in the company of the other gender; acting more formally and expressing less. Benny et al (1956) and Hyman (1954) both argue that women in the presence of men talk more traditionally are more formal and tend to give the expected answer. Oldham Case study then this >It could be argued that as both these papers are dated, the findings may be less relevant. Macaulay (1993) claim the more egalitarian answers are more persuasive among male respondents when interviewed by a women. Flores-Macias and Lawson (2006) found that men are more likely to be effected rather than women. Furthermore that the social context has an effect, culture for example in Mexico City men were more susceptible to gender bias backing this up. Approximately 30% of men interviewed by men felt women rights were urgent however 40% interviewed by women felt it an issue. They also found women were more progressive when interviewed by men. Holbrook et al (2003) argue that effect from respondents believe they try to answer what interviewers want. Oldham Case study Davis et al (2010) argue that interviewer effects can impact the data obtained. They looked at measuring and controlling interviewer effects. Effects can occur from interviewer related issues such as the way questions are read, probes are used, instructions to survey etc (OLDHAM CASE study difference between male and female). Davis et al (2010) discuss how gender is the most noticeable characteristic of an interview and therefore is most susceptible to having an effect. In the past women were considered better interviewers because they are seen as less threatening and therefore there has not been as much research on this topic. But since telephone interviews gender has become more of an issue as no longer can the respondent see socioeconomic status, physical attractiveness, personal demeanour (Huddy et al 1997, p.197). Huddy et al (1997) note that there is growing evidence that respondents are more likely to give a feminist view to a female interviewer as the respondent seeks to give the answer they think the interviewer wants to hear. OLDHAM CASE Huddy et al (1997) had two goals from their study to test for the existence of gender-of-interviewer effects across a range of gender related questions. And to explore the characteristics of respondents most liable to gender-of-interviewer. Huddy et al (1997) wanted to test to see if the existence of gender-of-interviewer effected a range of topics or just gender related questions to achieve this they used two surveys both containing questions that dealt with womens issues and womens movements. Their results showed respondents were more likely to give a feminist view to a female interviewer on 11/13 gender related topics. However the difference obtained by male and female interviewers was small and consistent and was only significant for a minority of questions. The topics that showed gender-of-interviewer effects differed from the two surveys in the first, carried out in 1991 the largest gender-of-interview effects occurred on questions relating to feminist identity whereas in the second, obtained in 1993 they were on topics on abortion and anti-sexual harassment legislation. In both surveys a female interviewer collected more feminist views then a man. They did find, however that gender bias occurred most on both surv eys when topics on controversial politics were broached. With Huddy et al (1997) second goal they discovered significant interaction between interviewer gender and education less-well educated respondents were more influenced then well educated by the interviewers gender. Despite this the same results were not emulated in the second survey but they argue this could be because the gender bias was not as affluent either. To reinforce this Huddy et al (1997) assessed the statics of education and effect of gender on respondents with 12 and 17 years of education. They found that gender-of-interviewer effects were more prevalent with less educated respondents. Overall respondents with less formal education were more likely to be effected by the gender-of-interviewer and on gender related questions. Huddy et al (1997) note that gender bias decreases with age and income was the only demographic characteristic that did not increase. But how important is it, does it have a large enough effect to matter? Huddy et al (1997) found that small differences in their study. They conclude that it depends on the survey being administered. If it will effect then it is crucial that an equal number of men and women are randomly assigned to respondents. Finally Huddy et al (1997) believe that from their results it can be seen that gender could effect any type of survey and use the beginning of their first survey to demonstrate this point; where gender bias is present and the topic of the survey has not been disclosed. Huddy et al (1997) argue the view gender-of-interview effects questions is premature because; rarely have researcher controlled the individualism of interviews when examining gender-of-interviewer effects, few studies have measured the size of effects across a broad spectrum of questions to see if the effect is on feminist questions or all topics. Bellou and Del Boca (1980) did look into this in their 1980 study. Huddy et al (1997) continue explaining that effects are not standard even for questions on the same topic and few studies have tested the statistical significance across several variables with the same respondent. Huddy et al (1997) suggest that not enough research on which gender is most prone to gender-interviewer-bias as there is a contrast in theories. Lueptow, Moser and Pendleton (1990) argue women are more likely to give feminist views to a female interviewer, which they proved through telephone interviews. In contrast Ballou and Del Boca (1980) contrasted stating male respondents are more vulnerable to female interviews and appear more feminine. McDowell (1988) disagrees arguing that there is no gender split in research methods but rather a stereotyping in gender characteristics. Little work has been done on the effect of the interviewers gender; as traditionally interviewing was a female occupation Williams (1964) in his classic paper hypothesised that the greater the amount of social difference between interviewer and respondent the more likely of gender bias. Demonstrates the importance of the gender of interviewer and that the subject can have an effect.

A Turkish Student and the Board of Regents :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

A Turkish Student and the Board of Regents In what ways can Iowa State University be improved? Responses to this question could vary widely depending on the background of the subject being interviewed. Perhaps an international student might suggest a new club or organization designed to acclimate foreign students to life on campus. However, John Couch, an international student from Turkey, had a much more unique response. Having a wide variety of friends isn't a large concern of his. He is more concerned with how the university is being run and the different boards and comities, in a particular the Board of Regents. John's opinion is that the Board of Regents isn't hearing the concerns of the students. In fact, they appear to be concerned less with the needs of the students and more concerned with the issues of funding. It is very unfortunate that the budget of the university has been cut, but the Board must still attempt to maintain a good relationship with the student body. The quality of education at Iowa State has suffered because of these budget cuts, and the Board has not posted any viable methods to attempt to replenish any of those lost dollars. When asked if he had any suggestions for going about this daunting task, John was unsure. There is definitely a need for more support to aid research, building renovations, and to allow for more teachers, reducing overall class sizes. John's opinion was influenced by his initial experiences at Iowa State. John spent two years in Iowa attending high school before choosing Iowa State. Even though when he graduated his family was still far away in Istanbul, Turkey, John was ready for college. He didn't know if he would fit in or if the other people would make fun of him, he just knew he was going to have fun and learn. John had heard about an organization called a fraternity and thought it sounded interesting. He would eventually join the university's chapter of Sigma Alpha Epsilon and would meet many new people.

Synthesis of Salicylic Acid and Potentiometric Determination of Its Purity and Dissociation Constant

Synthesis of Salicylic Acid and Potentiometric Determination of its Purity and Dissociation Constant ————————————————- Abstract The purpose of the study is to synthesize salicylic acid from the ester, methyl salicylate, and determine the acid’s dissociation constant and purity. The ester was converted to salicylic acid by base hydrolysis. The products were refluxed and recrystallized, to ensure maximum purity, and filtered, dried, and weighed. The melting point of the product was determined using a Fischer-Johns melting point apparatus. The acid then dissolved in separate beakers with 95% ethanol and water and titrated with 0. 050 M NaOH, previously standardized with potassium hydrogen phthalate, through potentiometric titration. The pH after addition of base was measured and plotted against the volume of titrant added using three different plots. Results show a 61. 0% yield and the melting point differed from the theoretical by a range of 3. 11-6. 83%. The pKa calculated was 2. 865, differing from the literature value of 2. 98, by 3. 86%. The theoretical purity of the sample was 100. 0%, which differed with the experimental one by 1. %; the experimental purity is 101. 7%. Potentiometric titration proves to be adequate in the determination of the acid dissociation constant and purity of a sample. Aside from that, the synthesis proved adequate given the high purity of the product. ————————————————- Keywords : acid dissociation constant purity melting point ester INTRODUCTION Potentiometric methods of analysis are based on measuring the potential of electrochemical cells without drawing much, appreciable current. For centuries, potentiometry has been used to locate the endpoint in most titration set-ups. Skoog, et al. , 2004). Potentiometric methods offer a myriad of advantages, its main advantage being its low operational costs. Voltmeters and electrodes are, generally, far cheaper than most modern scientific instruments. Models suitable for direct potentiometry in field work, away from the laboratory, are inexpensive, compact, and easy to use. Essentially nondestructive of the sample, i. e. , insertion of the electrode does not drastically change the composition of the test solution (except for the slight leakage of electrolytes from the reference electrode), electrodes are relatively free from interferences. Stable potential readings are attained fairly rapidly and voltages are easily recorded as functions of time. Finally, the wide range of analyte activities, over which some of the available indicator electrodes exhibit stable, nearly Nernstian responses, represents an important advantage (Day and Underwood, 1991). Potentiometric titrations involve measurement of the potential of a suitable indicator electrode as a function of titrant volume. This indicator electrode is speecific to the hydronium ion, H3O+. It offers adavantages over direct potentiometry in that it is not dependent on measuring absolute values of Ecell. This is due to having the measurement based on the titrant volume that causes a rapid change in potential near the equivalence point. This makes the process relatively free from the juction potential uncertainties as this potential remains approximately constant during the titration process. Instead, the titration results depend heavily on having a titrant with accurately known concentration. The instrument merely signals the endpoint and behaves like a regular chemical indicator. Aside from that, the reference electrode potential need not be known. Most importantly, ionic strength effects are not important in the titration procedure because the result is analyte concentration, even if the electrode responds to activities. The dissociation of a weak monoprotic acid is given by the equation HA – H+ + A– (1) [H+][A–] [HA] where HA is the monoprotic acid, and A– is its conjugate base. The corresponding equilibrium constant for this acid dissociation is defined as Ka = (2) Ka[HA] [A–] which, when seeking to find [H+], rearranges to [H+] = (3) Prior to the equivalence point, before any titrant was added and the analyte is the only species present in solution, the pH of the system is calculated from the concentration of that analyte and its dissociation constant. In the case where a weak monoprotic acid is being titrated with a strong base, subsequent addition of the titrant will cause a reaction to occur between the acid and the base. HA + OH– > H2O + A– (4) The presence of the acid and its conjugate base in solution will cause the formation of a buffer solution, which are solutions that resist a drastic change in pH, should a strong acid or base be added to the system. At these points, the slope of a constructed titration curve is at its minimum. This is the pre-equivalence point. There is a point during the pre-equivalence point region wherein both the acid and its conjugate base are present in equal amounts. This occurs when half of the acid has been neutralized, or when the titration is at the half-equivalence point. At this point, the buffering capacity of the system is at its maximum. Aside from that, simplifying Eq. 3 at this point by inspection, the [H+] is equal to that of the Ka. Taking the negative of the logarithm of both sides, one will be able to get the relation pH = pKa (Skoog, et al. , 2004). Thus, the dissociation constant may be computed through determining the pH at half-equivalence point. This experiment will use salicylic acid as the analyte. Salicylic acid, Fig. 1. Salicylic acid is a weak monoprotic acid, capable of releasing the acidic hydrogen connected to the –COOH group. The hydrogen of the phenol group is hard to release because the oxygen is stabilized by resonance. Salicylic acid is a naturally occuring substance, usually produced by plants. It is found mainly in the willow's leaves and bark. The pure acid possesses several useful medicinal properties. It is an antipyretic (fever reducer), analgesic (pain reliever) and anti-inflammatory (swelling reducer). However, pure salicylic acid makes for an extremely unpleasant medicine. Salicylic acid contains two acidic functional groups, the phenolic (C6H5OH) and the carboxylic acid (RCOOH) groups. These groups cause the acid to be an irritating substance that burns the delicate lining of the mouth, throat, and stomach, hence its esterification to acetylsalicylic acid or aspirin, before ingestion as analgesic (Reed College, 2009). Esterificaton is the process by which a carboxylic acid is transformed to an ester. Esters are organic compounds that are derived usually by reacting a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. The general formula for esters is with the RC=O group derived from the parent carboxylic acid, and the –OR’ group from the parent alcohol. The mechanism for the reaction of the alcohol and carboxylic acid to form the ester is as follows: Fig. 2. Mechanism of Esterification from a Carboxylic acid RCOOH and alcohol R’OH Esters may also be synthesized by reacting the carboxylic acid with other reagents such as SOCl2 to form the acyl chloride, which will then be treated with an alcohol in pyridine, to esterify it. Esters are among the most widespread of all naturally occuring compounds. Many esters are pleasant-smelling liquids that are responsible for the fragrant odor of fruits and flowers. For example, methyl butanoate is found n pineapple oil and isopentyl acetate is a constituent of banana oil. The ester linkage is also present in animal fats and other biologically important molecules. The chemical industry also uses esters for a variety of purposes. Ethyl acetate, for example, is commonly used as a solvent while many dialkyl phthalates are used as plasticizers to keep polymers from being brittle (McMurry, 2004) . Methyl salicylate is produced by many plants. It was first isolated from wintergreen leaves, Gaulthea procumbens, and is commonly known as oil of wintergreen. Fig. 3. Methyl salicylate An ester of salicylic acid and methanol, it masks one of the acidic hydrogens in salicylic acid by replacing it with a methyl (CH3–) group. Hence, it is a relatively unreactive compound that does not release salicylic acid efficiently into the body. It is, therefore, not an effective analgesic, or pain-killer. However, it is added to many products, notably for its fragrance, especially root beer and liniments. In order for it to be activated, methyl salicylate must be converted to salicylic acid by organic synthesis, specifically through saponification, a process not unlike that undergone by animal fats to become soaps (McMurry, 2004). In this experiment, salicylic acid will be synthesized from methyl salicylate by base hydrolysis. Its dissociation constant will also be measured through potentiometric titration. Likewise, the percentage of purity the salicylic acid used in the reaction will be likewise determined. METHODOLOGY In synthesizing salicylic acid, 1. 2 g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were dissolved in 7 mL water in a round bottom flask.. Half of a milliliter (0. 5 mL) of methyl salicylate was added to this mixture. The mixture was then efluxed for 15 minutes and cooled to room temperature. One-milliliter increments of 3 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) were added until the formation of a white precipitate, salicylic acid. Half of a milliliter (0. 5 mL) of the acid was added to ensure complete precipitation of the product. The mixture was then cooled in an ice water bath with a temperature of at most 5 °C for the reaction to subside. The product was then filtered and rinsed with cold water, and recrystallized in wat er. The solids were then filtered on a pre-weighed filter paper and air-dried in the locker. When dried, the solids, along with the filter paper, were weighed and the melting point determined. Two hundred and fifty milliliters (250 mL) of 0. 50 M stock sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution was then prepared. From this solution, 250 mL of 0. 050 M standard solution was prepared for the titration. This solution was then standardized with 0. 2000 g 99. 95% potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) and phenolphthalein as indicator to the pale pink endpoint. Two more trials were done. Three samples of pure salicylic acid were weighed at approximately 0. 000 g and placed in three separate 250-mL beakers. A minimum amount of 95% ethanol was then added to dissolve the acid, and was diluted with 50. 00 mL distilled water. The electrode was first calibrated such that it would relate the developed potential to the pH. At this point, the potential would be measured as pH when increments of the titrant are successively added. The base burette, pH meter, and magnetic stirrer were set up according to Fig. 6. Fig. 6. Potentiometric titration set-up A spin bar was place inside the beaker with the sample solution. The electrode was also positioned such that it would not get hit with the spin bar. The pH of the set-up was first measured prior to addition of base. For the first trial, 1. 00 mL of the titrant was added to the analyte and the pH recorded. This was done until the pH was 11. 50. From there, the equivalence point was approximated based on the volume of the titrant that caused a large change in pH. For the two succeeding trials, 1. 00 mL of the titrant was added to the analyte. At  ±5. 00 mL of the equivalence point, the volume of titrant added was reduced to 0. 0 mL increments. At  ±3. 00 mL and  ±2. 00 mL of the equivalence point, it was further reduced to 0. 20 mL and 0. 10 mL, respectively. The titration contnued beyond 5. 00 mL of the equivalence point using 0. 50 mL of titrant until the pH registered was 11. 00. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Methyl salicylate reacts with a strong base in the following manner: Fig. 4. Base hydrolysis of methyl salicylate The methoxy group of the e ster is substituted by the hydroxide ion through nucleophilic acyl substitution. The hydroxide attaches itself to the carboxylic carbon. A fast proton transfer from the hydroxide to the methoxy group occurs such that the methoxy gets protonated and leaves the substrate. The sodium ions stabilize the negative charge of the salicylate ion predominantly found near the two oxygens of the ion. The solution was then refluxed to prevent loss of material and to prevent the inclusion of impurities in the product. After cooling to room temperature, 1. 00 mL of 3M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) until salicylic acid starts precipitating as a white solid. To complete the precipitation, 0. 50 mL of the strong acid was added to the mixture. At this point, the salicylate ion is protonated and the final product, salicylic acid, forms through the reaction: Fig. 5. Protonation of the phenolate and carboxylate groups of the salicylate ion The flask containing the precipitate was then doused in cold water to stop the reaction. Cold water was used in rinsing the solid after filtration to wash out impurities that were insoluble in the solvent. The solid was recrystallized in hot water. Dissolving the solids in hot water generally increases the solubility of the substances, hence the solids dissolve along with the soluble impurities. The mixture was then allowed to cool slowly. As the solution cools, the solubility of the compound (and of the soluble impurities) decreases, the solution becomes saturated with the desired compound, and the compound begins to crystallize. Because formation of crystals is a highly selective process that usually excludes foreign molecules, only crystals of the desired compound form. Because the soluble impurities are present in smaller amounts, the solution never becomes saturated with the impurities, so the impurities remain in solution even after the solution has cooled. Removing the solution from the crystals thus removes the solvent and the soluble impurities from the desired crystals. A final rinse of minimum ice water ensures the displacement of the impurities still clinging on the surface of the product (â€Å"Recrystallization,† accessed 6 Sept 2010). After it was recystallized, the solid was filtered again in a pre-weighed filter paper. The filter paper used in filtering the solid weighed 1. 0349  ± 0. 0002 g. The mass of the dried product and the filter paper was 1. 3610  ± 0. 0002 g; this means that 0. 3261  ± 0. 0003 g was synthesized. Theoretically, with methyl salicylate as the limiting reagent, the mass of salicylic acid should be 0. 5400 g. Computing for the %yield, would give 61. 0%. In the determination of the melting point, the observed range of the melting point was 150-156 °C. Comparing with the theoretical value, 161 °C, the relative error lies within the range 3. 11-6. 83%. Therefore, the synthesized salicylic acid has a high purity as exhibited by the magnitude of the relative error. This could justify the %yield given that recrystallization might have caused a loss of material due to the increase of the number of steps involved. It should be noted that in organic synthesis, steps leading to the target molecule do not give 100% yield, hence, increasing the number of steps would decrease the %yield. Aside from that, the low yield could be attributed to the accidental rapid cooling that occurred during the recrystallization process. In a titration curve, there are three important regions: pre-equivalence point, equivalence point, and post-equivalence point. For the titration of salicylic acid with NaOH, the pre-equivalence point is characterized by the dependence of pH on the concentration of salicylic acid. Let salicylic acid be HA; prior to addition of the base, the pH can be calculated by the concentration of HA and its acid dissociation constant, Ka. When the base is added, HA reacts with the hydroxide ion (OH– ) according to the Eq. 4 stated above. Therefore, one has a buffer solution comprised of salicylic acid and salicylate. At equivalence point, all of the acid has been converted into its conjugate base. This base will hydrolyze with water through the reaction A– + H2O > HA + OH– (6) reforming a small portion of the acid. At the equivalence point, the slope of the titration curve is at its steepest. The pH at this point is dependent upon the conjugate base formed and its base dissociation constant, Kb. Beyond the equivalence point, the post-equivalence point, the pH is dependent on the concentration of the excess titrant added. This is because the contribution of the conjugate base is very small and, therefore, negligible compared to that of sodium hydroxide. However, salicylate is still the dominant species of salicylic acid present in solution. A distinction between equivalence point and endpoint should be established when titrating. Skoog, (2004), states that the equivalence point is the point in titration where the amount of titrant added is chemically equivalent to that of the analyte in solution. The endpoint is a point during titration wherein an observable change signals that the amount of titrant added is chemically equivalent with that of the analyte. The endpoint may not necessarily coincide with the equivalence point, especially in neutralization titrations. It may come earlier or later than the equivalence point, depending on the indicator used. This difference pf volume at equivalent and endpoint is known as titration error. In potentiometric titration, no chemical indicator is required. Instead, the endpoint is characterized by the drastic change in pX, measured by the electrode. X may be H3O+, OH–, a cation or anion, or any substance participating in the titrimetric reaction (Day and Underwood, 1991). In this case, the volume of titrant that contributes to the greatest change in pH is the volume required to completely titrate the salicylic acid in solution. Thus, the increments of addition of titrant are narrowed down as the equivalence point is reached because that way, the equivalence point will not be missed. Aside from that, the exact volume of titrant required for complete reaction of the analyte would be detected. Prior to titration and dilution with water, the salicylic acid was dissolved with a minimal amount of 95% ethanol. Salicylic acid is sparingly soluble in water, a polar solvent that can hydrogen-bond with solutes that can hydrogen-bond with its molecules. This is due to the acid having more than 6 carbons increasing its non-polarity, although it has oxygen that can form hydrogen bonds with water (McMurry, 2004). Adding ethanol reduces the polarity of the solvent, facilitating dissolution of the acid. It was noted that some of the acid reprecipitated upon addition of water. Thus, a minimum amount of 95% ethanol was again added to dissolve the acid. In the experiment, the electrode was also not lowered while the bar was spinning as air bubbles would adhere on its surface causing an error in the measurement of pH. Constant stirring is important in potentiometric titrations, as in other types of titrimetric analyses. Stirring is done because it will cause the titrant to react not just with the surface of the analyte where it dropped but with the entirety of the analyte solution. This way, the reaction will go to completion and minimal error will be observed. The volumes used for standardization of NaOH with KHP as primary standard are tabulated in Table 2 in the Appendix. Standardization of sodium hydroxide gave 0. 04633 M NaOH. This value was used in the determination of the percentage of purity (%purity) of the salicylic acid sample. For the determination of the equivalence point volume, three plots were done for each trial. The first plot is the graph between pH vs. volume of titrant. The second is the first derivative plot with which ? pH/? V was plotted against V’, where ? pH and ? V are the change in pH and the volume added between two consecutive readings, respectively, and V’ is the average volume between two consecutive readings. The third plot is the second derivative plot between ? 2pH/? V2 and V†. The ordinate of the graph, ? 2pH/? V2, was obtained by taking the quotient of the difference between two consecutive readings of ? pH/? V, and ? V, whereas V† is the average of the two consecutive readings of V’. Only two trials were done because of the inadequacy of the time. The graphs for the first trial are: a) (b) (c) Fig. 7. Titration Curves for the First Trial. (a) pH vs Vtitrant; (b) ? pH/? V vs V’; (c) ? 2pH/? V2 vs V† MNaOHVNaOH at eq ptFWsalicylic acid Gsample The graph for the second trial may be found at the Appendix. Either of the three graphs of Figs. 7 and 8 may be used in the determination of %purity for each trial. The equation used for determining the %pu rity, specifically for this experiment is %purity = x 100 (7) Thus, the volume of titrant used at equivalence point is required for the calculation. The interpolated values of the volume at equivalence point are tabulated in Table 3 in the Appendix. Calculation of the mean %purity is 101. 7%, having an error of 1. 7%, as the theoretical value is 100. 0%. The pKa is based on the pH at half-equivalence point by virtue of the derivation of Eq. 3. Onle Figs. 7a and 8a may be used for the determination of pKa as the other four do not directly give the pH at each point. The interpolated values for the pH at half-equivalence point is tabulated at Table 3 in the Appendix. The experimental pKa is 2. 865. Therefore, the Ka of the acid, given Ka = –log[Ka] (7) or Ka = 10–pKa (8) is 1. 3646 x 10–3. The theoretical pKa is equal to 2. 98. Thus, the pKa value gave rise to a 3. 86% error. Statistical analysis of the results shows the following results: Table 1. Statistical Analysis of the Results | Range| Standard Deviation| %purity| 15. 7%| 11. 1%| pKa| 0. 21| 0. 148| | Relative Standard Deviation (RSD), ppt| Confidence Int ervals (95% confidence)| %purity| 109. 1| 101. 7  ± 99. 7 %| pKa| 51. 8| 2. 865  ± 1. 334| The RSD of %purity is relatively large such that the values have low precision. Aside from that, the confidence intervals for the mean is also large such that it almost has the same order of magnitude as that of the mean. This means that the mean exhibits very low accuracy. With regards to the pKa, the RSD showed a low value, only 51. 8 ppt, implying high precision amongst the values. On the other hand, the mean value shows low accuracy because of the magnitude of the confidence intervals. These errors could be attributed to the number of trials. Due to inadequate time, the group was only able to do 2 trials, one less than the prescribed number of trials. CONCLUSIONS The experiment aimed at synthesizing salicylic acid from methyl salicylate and determining the acid dissociation constant Ka of the acid along with its purity. Organic synthesis provided a 61% yield of the acid, a relatively low yield. However, the purity of the acid can be classified as high due to the observed melting point range’s precision with the theoretical one; the %differenceis only 3. 11-6. 38%. The results of the potentiometric titration show that the salicylic acid used was 101. 7% pure, a value greater than the purity, which is 100%. The Ka, expressed as pKa, obtained was 2. 865, 0. 035 units less than the theoretical value, which is 2. 98. Though the %differences are low, the accuracy of the computed values is questionable given that the confidence intervals for the %purity and pKa are  ± 99. 7 and  ± 1. 334, respectively. These errors can be attributed to the number of trials done, which is two, due to the slow stabilization of the pH meter readings that resulted in a long period of titration. Thus, it can be concluded that potentiometric titration is an effective way of determining the acid dissociation constant of a sample. It is recommended that a better pH meter be used in the measurement of the pH and that solutions used be titrated immediately. REFERENCES [1] Day, R. A. and A. L. Underwood. (1991). Quantitative Analysis. Sixth Edition. Prentice Hall, Inc. , USA. [2] â€Å"Experiment 3: Synthesis of Salicylic Acid from Oil of Wintergreen (Methyl Salicylate). † Laboratory Reference Manual Chemistry 201/202. Reed College. Accessed 6 September 2010 ;http://academic. reed. edu/chemistry/alan/ 201_202/lab_manual/Expt_salicylic_acid/background. html; [3] McMurry, J. (2004). Organic Chemistry. Sixth Edition. Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning, CA, USA. [4] †Recrystallization. † University of Massachussetts. Accessed 6 September 2010 ;http:// www. chem. umass. edu/~samal/269/ cryst1. pdf; [5] Skoog, D. A. , D. M. West, F. J. Holler, S. R. Crouch. (2004). Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry. Eighth Edition. Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning, CA, USA. APPENDIX Gfilter paper = 1. 0349  ± 0. 0002 g Gfilter paper and dried product = 1. 3610  ± 0. 0002 g Gdried product = 0. 3261  ± 0. 0003 g %yield = 61. 0% Observed melting point range: 150-156 °C %difference = 3. 11-6. 83% 1 ° standard used;: potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) purity = 99. 95% Table 2. Standardization of NaOH Trial| Mass of KHP, g| Vtitrant, mL| Molarity, M| 1| 0. 2030| 21. 30| 0. 04664| 2| 0. 2175| 23. 00| 0. 04628| 3| 0. 2043| 21. 70| 0. 04608| Average Molarity, M| 0. 04633| Table 3. Sample Analysis Trial| Gsalicylic acid, g| Vtitrant at eq. pt. , mL| % purity| pH at half-eq. pt. (pKa)| 1| 0. 11 25| 16. 50| 93. 86| 2. 76| 2| 0. 1031| 17. 65| 109. 6| 2. 97| 3| -| -| -| -| Average pKa = 2. 865 Average %purity = 101. 7% Plot of the Second Trial: (a) (b) (c) Fig. 8. Titration Curves for the Second Trial. (a) pH vs Vtitrant; (b) ? pH/? V vs V’; (c) ? 2pH/? V2 vs V†